It is difficult to point at one solid piece of data or theory as to why men are in the situation we find ourselves today.

In my work with men, I believe the underlying themes point towards a number of different reasons:

• Lack of purpose or meaning in life
• The addiction to short term gratification – Food, material positions, sex, gambling etc.
• Poor male mentoring influence – No father in the childhood home or strong, well rounded male figures in the patient’s life
• The glorification of violence, money and tyrannical power as a pursuit to meaning
• Trauma
• Adverse childhood events (2)
• A society that values academic pursuits instead of a well-rounded, meaningful spiritual pursuit towards discovering truth and purpose
• Poor boundaries and a lack of assertiveness
• Lacking healthy morals

In my clinic I work with mostly young men aged 20-35. Many are what I consider to be “lost”. Lacking meaningful careers, healthy relationships, filled with anxiety, depression and substance abuse.

The focus of understanding the male patient first comes with detailing physiological complaints but often turns into uncovering the life plan or life pattern that the individual is stagnant in, stuck in or struggling to break. It is therefore crucial to help the man see his body is deeply connected to what he surrounds himself with or ingests.

Poor dietary choices and substance misuse are critical to discuss as they often underpin a self-medication process that many men are sucked into in order to cope. This is linked to lacking internal resources and the lack of action on the areas of their life that need attention.

Younger male patients are often unaware of how their behaviours are intricately linked with short term gratification (3). Preferring to engage in behaviours that offer very short term relief through dopaminergic activity (drugs, food, gambling, pornography, spending excessive amounts of money etc). However, this can be a problem that affects men at any age.

Older men tend to live more meaningful lives in terms of family commitments, children and job/career. They are more dominant in manifesting a stronger sense of purpose, responsibility and meaning. But the juggling of such responsibilities can become overwhelming and as such promote a background feeling of instability that men can find difficult to comprehend.

This follows the theory of the ‘U-shaped happiness curve’ (4) which shows data from across the world pointing towards life satisfaction dropping in the age range of 40-50. These also happen to be the years with peak responsibilities when it comes to jobs, finances, children and hobbies. Exhaustion and stress become entrenched within the man who struggles with his demanding work/life balance. Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (5) provides key parts to how the stress response can become overloaded and middle-aged men living a manifested life are easily overburdened around this age.

The “mid-life crisis” plays into this phenomenon of men being unsatisfied in their mid-forties, and seeking other pursuits to alleviate the burden.

At all ages it would seem men have many areas of their life that they consciously or unconsciously do not speak about for reasons such as fear of judgement, ridicule or a general lack of awareness that they need attention.

Humans are innately gifted at using things in their environment to bring about a change. Abuse and/or misuse of foods, medicine and drugs will often feature in a male patient seeking help for mental health problems. It is an important subject to understand here in that the patient is merely seeking a change in their experience of reality by using foods and substances to cope with, change or repress a human sensation or emotion they are struggling to comprehend.

I find that substances play differing roles for men, mainly dependant upon age. Younger men tend to use substances in more social settings as a means to engage with the group. This is predominantly the “party” scene. Large gatherings of people help the individual find more meaning, but they often include substance abuse as a social dynamic.

Solitary substance use tends to be more Cannabis in the younger generation of men. Cannabis is often used for anxiety and insomnia in the home, with stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine being more favoured when in a group setting. In this case the substances are not necessarily stress related, or due to such a lack of responsibilities, but more associated with escapism.

Substances easily creep in with older men to cope with the increasing demands of a responsible life filled with a mortgage, marriage and children. Excessive Coffee often features in the morning due to poor cortisol awakening response (6), sugary foods during the day due to glucose needs impacted by stress, and alcohol in the evening to switch off and sleep.

Whilst every man is unique in presentation the following protocol is one I use with the most success:

• Detailed analysis and discussion of childhood experiences, family life, living situation, diet, substance misuse and physiological complaints.
• Introduction of agreements surrounding action that needs to be worked upon to become more of the man they wish to be.
• Agreements on changing diet and reducing substance misuse.
• The withdrawal of substances needs to be aligned with the practitioner attempting to understand what the male patient is using them for (repression of emotions, escapism, social connection, physical pain etc).
• Herbal treatment should be initially aimed at balancing the autonomic nervous system, fortifying the man’s energy reserves and reducing inflammation. This is often done with tonics, adaptogens, relaxants and anxiolytics.
• Younger men in their 20’s tend to be needing help to manifest more of the life they want by accepting the meaningful pursuit of responsibility. Herbs that change blood dynamics are more helpful here to break internal stagnancy which will be reflected in their external reality.
• Older men over 40 tend to need more help with finding calm, peace and a restructuring of the overburdening of responsibilities. Herbs that help reduce inflammation and calm the nervous system tend to be more relevant in this age group.
• Subsequent treatment should be aimed at working alongside new found goals, visions or thoughts towards a particular challenge, block and project they find meaning in. Nootropics are useful here.
• In all stages of treatment the consultations should encourage a significant amount of time towards facilitating the man to understand his life is more within his control than what he initially realises. Talking therapy, coaching and herbs are supporting him to become more manifested as a well-rounded and balanced individual.
• Men are likely to hold onto emotions for fear of judgement. When information is shared or released it is to be celebrated and encouraged by operating through a safe container in which information is received, discussed openly and new perspectives offered. This encourages trust and recognition that the male patient learns is not just acceptable but needed to unburden himself of the psychological weight that carrying around shame, guilt, anger, fear and resentments can bring upon the body.
• Nootropics are more likely to produce desired affects once inflammation, autonomic nervous system function, gut health and blood pressure have all found a more regulatory nature. I find that giving nootropics too early into treatment will lack the desired outcome.
• As treatment progresses, remember that the practitioner will produce lasting change by focusing on the life plan resolution and transformation rather than the disease. If you focus solely on the disease and treat only at the physiological level of illness you may not induce the psyco-spiritual changes that assist men to learn how they can master more control of their internal and external reality.

The following herbs are ones I use continuously with my male patients.

Gotu kola (Hydrocotyle asiatica)

• Actions: Nootropic, anti-inflammatory, brain tonic, warming
• Used for: Balancing the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Prolonged stress will cause a dysregulation that is perpetuated even at rest. Gotu Kola help stabilise and module the ANS. Helpful for anxiety.

Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)

• Actions: Lung tonic, antidepressant, aromatic, stress relieving, adaptogen
• Used for: Stagnation in mind and body. It is a highly aromatic herb that focuses on expelling mucus in the lungs and digestion. Perfect for supporting a male patient who is a chronic smoker and/or substance user addicted to behavioural patterns that have caused stagnation.

He shou wu (Polygonum multiflorum radix)

• Actions: Adaptogen, blood tonic, kidney tonic, alterative, rejuvenative, nervine
• Used for: Exhaustion and depletion associated with chronic stress. Pain and weakness in the lower back, knees and tendons. A tonic for the adrenals, liver and pancreas.

Maca root (Lepedium meyenii radix)

• Actions: Boosts fertility, rejuvenative, aphrodisiac, sexual tonic
• Used for: A native to the high Andean mountains of Peru. It was supposedly eaten by Inca warriors before going into battle as well as being given as a gift to newly married couples (7). Useful for men of any age who are exhausted, suffering with low libido and a general feeling they are severely lacking physiological power.

Damiana leaf (Turnera diffusa folia)

• Actions: Antidepressant, aphrodisiac, anxiolytic, relieving stress
• Used for: Improving decision making associated with fear of the unknown. Relaxing the mind and stimulating change.

Wu wei zi (Schisandra chinensis fructus)

• Actions: Adaptogen, aphrodisiac, nervine, astringent, antidepressant
• Used for: Originally used by Siberian hunters to improve eyesight, strength and resilience during challenging pursuits. Wu Wei Zi is an adaptogen that has affinity for improving the health of the liver and the vitality of the kidneys. I often use it with male patients who have a lot of repressed anger that needs to be expressed and integrated.

Borage (Borago officinalis)

• Actions: Adrenal tonic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic
• Used for: Improving adrenal vitality and regulation. A hyperactive fight or flight response will tax energy levels and Borage is often supportive of improving energy levels, giving the man more resources (energy) with which to take action to bring about further resolution and change.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

• Actions: Nootropic, antidepressant, stimulates circulation and improves blood flow
• Used for: Young male patients who are often lazy, lacking motivation and need to create momentum. Rosemary improves blood dynamics which are often stagnant in young men, reflecting a much needed change in behavioural patterns towards creating the life they want.

1. https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk
2. https://mft.nhs.uk/rmch/services/camhs/young-people/adverse-childhood-experiences-aces-and-attachment/
3. https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/the-modern-brain/201909/the-real-issue-instant-gratification
4. https://www.inc.com/jeff-haden/scientists-just-discovered-mid-life-crisis-peaks-at-age-47-heres-how-to-minimize-effect-of-happiness-curve.html
5. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320172
6. Lovallo. W.R, Whitsett. T. L, al’Absi. M, Sung. B. H, Vincent. A. S, Wilson, M. F. (2005) Caffeine Stimulation of Cortisol Secretion Across the Waking Hours in Relation to Caffeine Intake Levels, Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(5): p. 734-739.
7. https://charli-cohen.com/maca-the-mysterious-superfood-and-hormone-balancer/

Āyurvedic treatments (cikitsā) are traditionally organized as eight branches (or lotus petals) of medicine, namely:

1. Kāyacikitsā (internal medicine for the body)
2. Śalyatantra (surgery)
3. Śālākyatantra (ear, nose, throat and cephalic diseases)
4. Bālā/Kaumārabhṛtya (children’s’ ailments/paediatrics, obstetrics, gynaecology)
5. Agadatantra/Viṣagaravairodhatantra (toxicology)
6. Graha/Bhūtavidyā (psychiatry/demonology)
7. Rasāyana (rejuvenation)
8. Vājīkaraṇa (aphrodisiacs)

In Āyurvedic understanding it is generally maintained that a satisfying sex life is important for health; hence an entire branch of treatment (vājīkaraṇa = ‘stallion capabilities/actions’) is concerned with this topic and the use of aphrodisiac plants, animals and minerals to enhance sexual experiences and semen production.

This recommendation is primarily based on the general notion in Āyurveda that no natural urge should be suppressed, including those related to urine, faeces, semen, flatus, vomiting, sneezing, eructation, yawning, hunger, thirst, tears, sleep and breathing after exertion. Suppression of these urges is said to lead to health disorders. However, even if accustomed to it, a wise person avoids excessive sexual intercourse.

Sood et al. (2005) detail around 800 plants that can have an aphrodisiac effect; and that publication only details plants native to India. Multi-plant aphrodisiac formulas are also produced in Africa, South America and other parts of Asia, particularly in China.

The author has explored some of these formulas, which mostly use plants that are different to those used in India, and which are often not native to South Asia; however, non-South-Asian formulas are beyond the scope of this article. Numerous aphrodisiac formulas are also provided in dozens of Āyurvedic and alchemical texts that were composed later than those of Caraka and Suśruta, but this inquiry is restricted to the formulas found in the foundational texts of Āyurveda and in modern use.

Caraka (II.II) describes, in a chapter of four sections, around thirty-five aphrodisiac formulas, which contain numerous plants and animal products. These concoctions are variously heated and cooked in ghee and other substances. It may perhaps be surprising to learn how many plants can have an aphrodisiac effect, to varying degrees.

The first formula (II.II.1.24–32) is as follows (all plant ingredients are listed in English in Section 8 below).

śara (roots), ikṣu (roots), kāṇḍekṣu, ikṣuvālikā, śatāvarī, payasyā, vidārī, kaṇṭakāri[kā], jīvantī, jīvaka, medā, virā, ṛṣabhakā, balā, ṛddhi, gokṣuraka, rāsnā, kappikacchū, punaranavā. 120 gms of each of these drugs, mixed with 2.56 kg of new, black gram should be cooked in 10.24 litres of water till a quarter of it remains.

Then a paste of madhuka, drākṣā, phalgu, pippalī, kappikacchū, madhūka, and śatāvarī should be added to it, along with the juice of vidārī, āmalaka and ikṣu, added separately, along with 2.56 kg of ghee and 10.24 litres of milk. This should be cooked until only ghee remains. This should be filtered well and added to with 640 gms powdered sugar, 640 gms of vaṃśalocana, 160 gms of pippalī, 40gms of marica, 20 gms of tvak, 20 gms of elā, and 20 gms of nāgakeśara. 320 gms of honey should be added. Then boluses of 40 gms each should be made from the concoction.

Caraka’s second formula (vv. 33–37) is for an aphrodisiac ghee: 2.56 kg of both newly harvested grains of black gram and seeds of kappicacchū should be boiled together with 160 gms each of jīvaka, ṛṣabhaka, virā, medā, ṛddhi, śatāvarī, madhuka and aśvagandha. Then, 640 gms of ghee, 6.4 litres of cow-milk, and 640 mls of both the juice of vidārī and ikṣu should be added and cooked.

In the second section of Caraka’s chapter on aphrodisiacs, more formulas are described, which contain similar ingredients to those described above. Besides ṣaṣṭika rice, honey, ghee and cow-milk, the first formula provided contains kapikacchū, balā, mugdgaparṇī, jīvantī, jīvaka, ṛddhi, ṛṣabhaka, kākolī, gokṣura, madhuka, śatāvarī, vidārī, drakṣā, kharjūra and vaṃṣalocana as well as various animal products.

The formulas that follow are similar in form, comprising nearly all the same plants noted above. In one of them, the milk of a cow fed on black gram leaves, or sugarcane, or arjuna leaves is said to be aphrodisiac. Another recommends śapharī (fish) rohita (fish) and goat’s meat soup. One formula comprises only śatāvarī, milk, honey, sugar and pippalī (long pepper).

The plants used in the other formulas in this chapter that have not already been mentioned are śṛṅgāṭaka, mṛdvikā, and māṣa.

Suśruta, in his chapter on aphrodisiacs, first details the causes of impotence—such as old age, a congenital condition, forced intercourse, excessive sexual activity, and voluntary continence—and then provides formulas similar in style and content to those of Caraka.

Some of the plants that Suśruta includes in his formulas are also in Caraka’s formulas, while some are not. Like Caraka, Suśruta includes vidārī, āmalaka, gokṣura and ātmaguptā (= kappicaccū)in his formulas. However, Suśruta also includes the sprouts, bark, roots and fruit of the aśvattha (peepal) tree, the seeds of kokilakṣa, and powdered uchchatā.

Most traditional cultures effective medicinal plants are very often used in combination with other plants. In many traditional remedial formulas not only is the full spectrum of the chemical ingredients of the medicinal plant consumed but additionally the full spectrum of ingredients of other plants. Plant combinations often have a synergetic effect more potent than that derived from a single plant.

The same principle applies to Āyurvedic aphrodisiac formulas. As indicated above, nearly all of the aphrodisiac formulas given by the classical Āyurvedic authorities are multi-plant formulas. Individual plants taken even in large amounts may be much less effective than multiple-plant formulas that may utilize up to around fifty different kinds of plants in small amounts.

The aphrodisiac effect of plants depends on two main factors, one being a general increase in blood flow (also to the genitals), the other being an effect on libido. Some plants only effect blood flow, some only libido, and some do both. Viagra and Cialis, which are both popular, pharmaceutical, aphrodisiac drugs, use sidenfil, which only increases blood flow and has no effect on libido.

Sidenfil can be very dangerous for the heart. Sometimes, because it is so extremely effective, sidenfil is added to aphrodisiac formulas, such as Libidus and other Indian formulas, without it being declared in the list of ingredients. Unfortunately adulterated products are quite common in the supplements world. 

All of the plants recommended by Caraka and Suśruta are listed below. Even though featuring in their formulas, some of them are common foods or spices that currently have no psychoactive profile or known aphrodisiac effect.

It could be that some of the plants may have properties yet to be discovered, or perhaps they may act synergistically with the other ingredients. Several of the plants have multiple synonyms and are of uncertain botanical classification; so there may possibly be mistakes in the botanical classifications identified below.

Plants with a known (perhaps slight) or greater aphrodisiac effect are marked with an asterisk.

• āmalaka: āṃvlā, Emblica officinalis/Phyllanthus emblica
• *aśvagandha: Withania somnifera
• *aśvattha:peepal tree
• *balā: bījband/khareṭī, country mallow, Sida cordifolia
• drākṣā: grapes, Vitis vinifera
• elā: cardamom, Elettaria cardamomom
• *gokṣuraka: gokhrū/gokṣurā/gokṣura, Tribulus terrestris
• ikṣu (roots): sugar cane
• ikṣuvālika: wild sugar cane/Kans grass, Saccharum spontaneum
• *jīvaka: orchid, Crepidium acuminatum/Malaxis acuminata
• *jīvantī: orchid, Desmotrichum fimbriatum
• *kākolī: Roscoea purpurea
• kāṇḍekṣu: wild sugar cane/Kans grass, Saccharum spontaneum
• *kaṇṭakāri[kā]: yellow-fruit nightshade
• Solanum virginianum/surattense/xanthocarpum
• *kappikacchū: ātmagupta/kauṃc/kevāṃc, cowhage, Mucuna pruriens
• *kokilakṣa: tāl makhānā, fox nut/prickly waterlily, Astercantha longifolia
• kharjūra: dates
• kṣīṛikā: milk, rice and ghee
• *madhuka: mādhūkā/madhukā/madhūka, Mahuā tree, Madhuka longifolia
• marica: black pepper, Piper nigrum
• māṣa: urad, black gram, Phaseolus mungo
• *māṣaparṇī: Teramnus labialis
• medā: mahāmedā, Polygonatum cirrhifolium/verticillatum
• mṛdvikā: grapes, Vitis vinifera
• mugdgaparṇī: Phaseolus trilobos
• *nāgakeśara: Assam ironwood tree, Mesua ferrea
• payasyā: Holostemma rheedianum
• *phalgu: redwood fig tree, Ficus hispida
• pippalī: long pepper, Piper longum
• *punaranavā: Boerhavia diffusa
• *rāsnā: Pluchea lanceolata
• *ṛddhi: Lantanthera edgeworthii or Habenaria intermedia [this plant has sixty-six synonyms in Sanskrit]
• *ṛṣabhaka: Dienia/Malaxis/Microstylis muscifera
• śāli: a kind of rice
• śara (roots): a reed/Baruwa grass, Saccharum sara/bengalense
• *śatāvarī: Asparagus racemosus
• śrāvaṇī: Sphaeranthus indicus
• *śṛṅgāṭaka: Trapa natans/bispinosa
• tvak: cinnamon, Cinnamonum zeylanicum
• *uchchatā: nāgaramustā, Cyperus scariosus
• vaṃśalocana: pith of bamboo, tugākṣiri, Bambusa arundinacea
• *vidārī: kudzu, Hedysarum tuberosum/Pueraria tuberosa
• *virā: [probably] kākolī, Roscoea purpurea [this plant has fifteen synonyms in Sanskrit]

If you enter any pharmacy in India you will see in most of them, displayed on shelves and in cupboards, numerous packets and bottles of so-called ‘Āyurvedic’ aphrodisiac formulas, some comprising four or five ingredients, others containing up to around fifty ingredients.

These formulas mostly comprise of plant extracts but some include various metals, minerals and shells, which began to feature more significantly in Āyurvedic treatments about 1,000 years ago, as an overlap began between the Āyurvedic branch of rasāyana, which is the science of longevity, and vājīkaraṇa. In rasāyana, shells, minerals and metals are commonly used. There are many dozens of these formulas on the market, which come and go over the years, due to their popularity (or otherwise), and depending on the vagaries of the business world.

Over the course of twelve years, between 2006 and 2018, I purchased around forty different, Āyurvedic, aphrodisiac formulas, in the form of either capsules, powders or pills. Some formulas contained substances, such as opium, which are illegal (another case of adulteration mentioned earlier).

There are formulas for both men and women, though more formulas for men are available than for women. In classical Āyurveda, the formulas provided are generally for men, even though many plants would affect women also. I recorded the ingredients of thirty-two products made and distributed throughout India. Bioassays and anecdotal reports revealed that some were not very effective, others were found to be too strong (inducing excessive palpitations and sometimes a significant hangover), and some were highly effective, leaving little or no hangover.

Many factors influence the perceived potency of the products, including not only the usual range of effects of particular plants, but also the constitution of the consumer at the time, the ‘setting’ in which the product is consumed (‘romantic’ or otherwise), the age of the organic ingredients, which degrade in potency over time, and the specific dosage included in a particular formula.

Perusing the ingredients of the thirty-two formulas under consideration, it is evident that all of the plants recommended by Caraka’s and Suśruta are included in modern aphrodisiac formulas. The most frequently mentioned, effective, aphrodisiac plants that are recommended by Caraka and Suśruta, and which are also included in modern formulas are as follows.

• aśvagandha: Withania somnifera
• balā: bījband/khareṭī, country mallow, Sida cordifolia
• gokṣuraka: gokhrū/gokṣurā/gokṣura, Tribulus terrestris
• jīvaka: orchid, Crepidium acuminatum/Malaxis acuminata
• jīvantī: orchid, Desmotrichum fimbriatum
• kākolī: Roscoea purpurea
• kappikacchū: ātmagupta/kauṃc/kevāṃc, cowhage, Mucuna pruriens
• kokilakṣa: tāl makhānā, fox nut/prickly waterlily, Astercantha longifolia
• madhuka: mādhūkā/madhukā/madhūka, Mahuā tree, Madhuka longifolia
• māṣaparṇī: Teramnus labialis
• medā: mahāmedā, Polygonatum cirrhifolium/verticillatum
• nāgakeśara: Assam ironwood tree or cobra safron, Mesua ferrea
• śatāvarī: Asparagus racemosus
• śrāvaṇī: Sphaeranthus indicus
• śṛṅgāṭaka: Trapa natans/bispinosa
• uchchatā: nāgaramustā, Cyperus scariosus
• vidārī: kudzu, Hedysarum tuberosum/Pueraria tuberosa
• virā: [probably] kākolī, Roscoea purpurea [this plant has fifteen synonyms in Sanskrit]

Many modern formulas also include aphrodisiac plants not mentioned by Caraka and Suśruta. Some of the many dozens of plants included in modern aphrodisiac only appear once; others are more frequently included. The most common of these are:

• akarkarā/ākārakarabha (Spanish chamomile, Anacyclus pyrethrum)
• babūl goṇd (thorny acacia tree, Acacia arabica/nilotica/Vachellia nilotica)
• giloy, guḍūcī (Tinospora cordifolia)
• harītaki, black myrobalan tree, Terminalia chebula)
• jāyphal/jatiphal/jāvitrī (nutmeg, Myristica fragrans)
• kuclā/kucilā/kupīlu (strychnine tree, Strychnos nuxvomica) 
• lāl mūslī/semal/śālmali/kapok (silk cotton tree, Salmalia/Bombax malibaricum/ceiba)
• safed (white) mūslī (Chlorophytum arundinaceum/borivilianum)
• sālam/sālab miśri (Orchis mascula/latifolia)
• samūdraśoś/samūdra patra/vidhārāv/vṛddhadārū (Hawaiian baby woodrose/elephant creeper, Argyreia speciosa)

Also very commonly included in modern aphrodisiac formulas are various minerals and metals, in particular śilājīt (Asphaltum panjabicum), a kind of tar that exudes from high altitude rocks. Other additives include various shells, metals and bhasms (powders):

• gold, mercury, sulphur in a ratio of 1:8:24 (makardhvaj)
• calcinated iron ash (lauh bhasm)
• calcinated mica ash (abhrak bhasm)
• calcinated silver ash (raupya bhasm)
• calcinated gold powder (svarṇ bhasm)
• calcinated tin powder (vaṅg/baṅg bhasm)
• calcinated copper and iron sulphide (suvarṇāmakśak bhasm)
• calcinated pearl infused in rosewater (mukta piṣṭī)
• tin, lead, zinc: processed in aloe vera juice and turmeric (trivaṅg bhasm)
• gold foil (svarṇ varaq)
• mercury (pārad/pārā)
• yellow sulphur/brimstone (gandhak)

Makardhvaj is used as a traditional medicine in the treatment of sexual dysfunction in the rural population of South Asia and is the most commonly used bhasm in modern Āyurvedic formulas. Now we know that mercury is poisonous, however he medicinal effectiveness of minute particles of gold, one of the main ingredients of makardhvaj,has been explored. Outside the South Asian context, several metals and minerals (phosphorus, zinc, calcium, silicon, sodium, potassium, sulphur, magnesium, manganese, selenium and vanadium) are included as aphrodisiac potentiators in some publications.

From the dozens of ingredients used in modern, Āyurvedic, aphrodisiac formulas, listed below are the ‘top twelve’ plants that most are most commonly included.

1. akarkarā/ākārakarabha, Spanish chamomile: Anacyclus pyrethrum
2. aśvagandha: Ashwagandha: Withania somnifera
3. balā/bījband/khareṭī, country mallow: Sida cordifolia
4. giloy/guḍūcī: gilo:  Tinospora cordifolia
5. jāyphal/jatiphal/jāvitrī, nutmeg: Myristica fragrans
6. kappikacchū/ātmagupta/kauṃc/kevāṃc, cowhage: Mucuna pruriens
7. kokilakṣa: tāl makhānā, fox nut/prickly waterlily: Astercantha longifolia
8. safed (white) mūslī: mushali: Chlorophytum arundinaceum/borivilianum
9. sālam/sālab miśri: calamiciri: Orchis mascula/latifolia       
10. samūdraśoś/samūdra patra/vidhārāv/vṛddhadārū, Hawaiian baby woodrose/elephant creeper: Argyreia speciosa
11. śatāvarī: shatavari: Asparagus racemosus
12. vidārī: kudzu: vidari:  Hedysarum tuberosum/Pueraria tuberosa

From the preceding discussion, it can be seen that there is considerable overlap between the plants recommended by Caraka and Suśruta for aphrodisiac effect, and those most popular in modern formulas. However, it is also evident that most modern formulas use some plants that are not mentioned by the classical Āyurvedic authorities, possibly because they were not aware of those plants, or possibly because those plants were introduced to South Asia after the time of Caraka and Suśruta, around 2,000 years ago.

Some of the plants used in Āyurveda as aphrodisiacs are not recorded in modern aphrodisiac compendia; more research will undoubtedly reveal currently unknown aphrodisiac properties of several plants native to South Asia. As mentioned previously, a combination of plants can be far more effective than the use of an individual plant, even when taken in large amounts. There is still a great deal to learn about the effective chemistry of numerous substances on the human organism.

Plant identifications

Caraka, vol. 4:287–317; Monier-Williams; Pandanus Database of Indian Plants; Sensarma; Sudarshan; Wisdom Library.

References

• Canada Vigilance Program (2013). ‘Archived – Health Canada warns consumers not to use Libidus or any unauthorized products promoted for erectile dysfunction’. Ottawa: Health Canada/Government of Canada (25^th April). https://healthycanadians.gc.ca/recall-alert-rappel-avis/hc-sc/2008/13282a-eng.php
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